REVIEW: A Code Within a Code: How Codons Fine-Tune Protein Folding in the Cell

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Anton A. Komar^1,2,3,4*

¹Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease and Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio 44115, USA

²Department of Biochemistry and Center for RNA Science and Therapeutics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA

³Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA

⁴DAPCEL, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA

Received April 11, 2021; Revised April 11, 2021; Accepted April 28, 2021

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The genetic code sets the correspondence between the sequence of a given nucleotide triplet in an mRNA molecule, called a codon, and the amino acid that is added to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. With four bases (A, G, U, and C), there are 64 possible triplet codons: 61 sense codons (encoding amino acids) and 3 nonsense codons (so-called, stop codons that define termination of translation). In most organisms, there are 20 common/standard amino acids used in protein synthesis; thus, the genetic code is redundant with most amino acids (with the exception of Met and Trp) are being encoded by more than one (synonymous) codon. Synonymous codons were initially presumed to have entirely equivalent functions, however, the finding that synonymous codons are not present at equal frequencies in mRNA suggested that the specific codon choice might have functional implications beyond coding for amino acid. Observation of nonequivalent use of codons in mRNAs implied a possibility of the existence of auxiliary information in the genetic code. Indeed, it has been found that genetic code contains several layers of such additional information and that synonymous codons are strategically placed within mRNAs to ensure a particular translation kinetics facilitating and fine-tuning co-translational protein folding in the cell via step-wise/sequential structuring of distinct regions of the polypeptide chain emerging from the ribosome at different points in time. This review summarizes key findings in the field that have identified the role of synonymous codons and their usage in protein folding in the cell.

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KEY WORDS: genetic code, codon usage, synonymous codons, translation kinetics, nascent peptides, co-translational protein folding

DOI: 10.1134/S0006297921080083

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